TY - RPRT
TI - Black Harriers and Wind Energy: Guidelines for impact assessment, monitoring and mitigation
AU - Simmons, R
AU - Ralston-Paton, S
AU - Colyn, R
AU - Garcia-Heras, M
AB - Since the 1997 Kyoto Protocol, many of the world’s nations have agreed to limit their greenhouse gas emissions because they are the root cause of global climate change. This necessitated a commitment to move away from carbon-polluting energy sources such as coal and oil to renewable energy sources such as wind and solar power. South Africa signed the Kyoto Protocol and the Paris Agreements and is thus committed to reducing  carbon  emissions.  This is  a real issue  in South  Africa, because 86% of our electricity was generated by coal-fired power stations in 2016 and renewables accounted for less than 2% of electricity production (Statistics South Africa 2018). Renewable energy can play a role in conserving the world’s biodiversity which is otherwise required to adapt or perish in the wake of rapid climate change (Thomas et al. 2004, Simmons et al. 2004). Unfortunately, renewable energy comes with some negative impacts, namely disturbance, displacement, habitat destruction or direct mortality of birds through impacts with turbines, towers, mirrors or power lines (Drewitt and Langston 2006, Gove et al. 2013, Loss et al. 2013). With  few exceptions  (e.g. Altamont, USA  and Tarifa, Spain) most  studies  suggest  that  the  number  of  mortalities  caused  by collisions with wind turbines is currently relatively low compared to other sources of anthropogenic avian mortality (Erickson et al. 2001,  Sovacool 2013). For example,  losses  due to  non-renewable fossil fuel energy sources are estimated at 14.5 million birds annually in the USA, whereas wind energy there kills about 234  000 birds  per  year  (Loss  et  al.  2013,  Sovacool  2013).  Despite  the  relatively low fatality rates at wind energy facilities (WEFs) the main issue  that  remains  is  that  threatened  species  are often victims of turbine  collisions.  For  example,  in  South  Africa,  Ralston-Paton et  al.  (2017)  found  that  36%  of  all  carcasses  found  beneath  wind turbines were large or small raptors, and 8% were threatened red data species. To avoid adding further pressure to threatened species, guidelines are needed to help wind energy expand with the least negative effects on populations. Bird species at risk from wind energy in South Africa have been prioritised (Retief et al. 2013, updated in Ralston-Paton et al. 2017) taking flight behaviour, wing loading, aerial display activity and  other factors into consideration. Black Harrier  Circus  maurus,  the  scarcest  endemic  raptor  in  southern Africa (Taylor et al. 2015), was ranked sixth in this list of priority species (Cape Vulture  Gyps  coprotheres, Verreaux’s Eagle Aquila verreauxii,  Bearded Vulture  Gypaetus  barbatus, Taita Falcon  Falco fasciinucha  and  Martial Eagle  Polemaetus  bellicosus). Fatalities of Black Harriers have been reported from three  WEFs in South  Africa, confirming predictions that this species may be at risk. T his document provides an overview of the current understanding of the likely impact of wind turbines on Black Harriers and offers guidance on how the impacts should be assessed, avoided, mitigated and monitored (summarised in Figure 1). We also provide a brief introduction to Black Harrier ecology and pinpoint areas where Black Harriers are most likely to occur. Where data are limited, our recommendations have been supplemented with expert opinion. As our knowledge grows, the recommendations contained in these guidelines  may  be  amended  to  reflect  our  improved  understanding of how Black Harriers can survive alongside an increasing amount of power generated from wind. T hese guidelines expand on the recommendations in the BirdLife  South  Africa  /  Endangered  Wildlife  Trust  Best  Practice Guidelines for Birds and Wind Energy (Best Practice Guidelines) (Jenkins et al. 2015). These documents should, therefore, be read together. 
DA - 2020/07//
PY - 2020
SP - 21
PB - BirdLife South Africa
LA - English
KW - Wind Energy
KW - Land-Based Wind
KW - Collision
KW - Habitat Change
KW - Birds
ER -